nuclear energy industry

 Nuclear energy industry

There are now 439 nuclear reactors in operation in around world in over 30 countries, providing almost 16 per cent of world electricity. The first commercial reactors came to operation during late 1950s, but industry really took off in1970s,when concern over energy security and fossil fuel prices prompted  many governments and power companies to consider nuclear plants. Over 200 reactors came into operation during 1980s, but by end of decades there had been a marked slow down of orders prompted by  a range of economic and public acceptance issues . In the period since many commentators began writing off industry, expecting slow death  with plant decommissioning expected to be only buoyant activity.

By turn of 21st century, however there were already signs of sharp revival of fortunes. The key to this was undoubtedly improved  operating performance of the reactors already in place. With the realization that they could earn significant benefits to their owners, even in liberalized  markets. It is now generally expected  that most of its achieve extensions to their previously operating lives, while many are experiencing power out put up-rates up to 20 per cent. In addition many years of safe operation of Chernobyl accident in 1986 have eased public acceptance concerns, while volatile fossil prices and energy security concerns have prompted consideration of all alternative generation options. But perhaps the most significant factor that has prompted discussion of nuclear renaissance in the increased global attention placed on climate change. Nuclear power plants emits only minor amount of green house gases and is attracting a significant amount renew attention along with alternative low -carbon energy sources such as renewable.  

New reactor  programs are currently being led by Asian countries , particularly China and India but many of the countries with more established nuclear sectors, such as United States, the U.K. and Russia are seriously planning new build. They have been joined by many more countries now considering nuclear reactors first time  such as Indonesia, Vietnam , Malaysia , Thailand and several middle east countries.

A complex industry can be conveniently  divided into several sections. A huge R&D work goes into reactor designs, a sector that has now consolidated in to small number of players who can sell thought the world. Capital cost of nuclear power plants relatively high by comparison with rival technologies and building on time and budget is essential. This involves mainly local sub contractors but there are  a number of major international companies involved in this area . The  nuclear fuel cycle from uranium mining to waste disposal has number of specialist activities, each which are carried out by limited number of companies world wide. More in back are a number  of technology, equipment and service companies who provide a ranges of specialized products and services to all areas of industry . Finally there is a group of electricity utilities for whom nuclear power plants represent significance  share of their generating capacity.

Nuclear reactors

The new reactors being offered today are essentially evolutionary developments of well proven design having with stood the tests of time since in 1950. Reactor design commonly discussed in terms of generation and today models are referred to generation 111. These offer several improvements on previous generation 11 design, on economy of construction, safety and operating cost. There is also currently a significant amount of international R&D work going on into so called generation iv designs, but these are unlikely to become commercialized before until 2020 at the earliest

Nearly 90 per cent existing reactors are light water reactors (LWRs) of which there are two main groups  Pressurized Water Reactors (PWRs)and Boiling Water Reactors (BWRs)  . All of the operating 104 U.S. reactors for example of these two types. The most significant alternative design is Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) of which CANDU design is best known. With exception , all of new reactors being offered today fall into these types. Other reactors models currently in operation such as the British gas cooled reactors  and some remaining RBMK reactors in former Soviet Union are being gradually phase out and will not form basis for any new design. All of latest model mentioned are large reactors (1000 MWe and above) but there are some high temperature gas cooled reactors (HGRs) now being developed by China and South Africa (the PBMR)which are much smaller at 200 Mwe . Those may be particularly suitable for developing countries without strong power grids but are unlikely to be commercialized before 2020.

The superb safety record achieved by current generation reactors has clearly increase in confidence  in them forming basis for a renewed nuclear build program .Many initiatives taken after math of mile Island Chernobyl accident to improve a strong safety culture thought the world industry lead IAEA and world association of nuclear operators (WANO).

The marketing of new major reactors has to day concentrated in a few major companies but with some smaller players also capable of undertaking alternative projects. Areva, GE-Hitachi and Westinghouse -Toshiba are the three majors and at the centre of the proposals to build new reactors both in U.S. and U.K., Atomstroyexport of Russia , AECL of Canada and  KOPEC  of Korea are also competing major reactor contractors having established reputation with nuclear programs in their own countries.

Nuclear fuel developments

Nuclear fuel is loaded into new nuclear reactors in the form of fuel assemblies, long, thin zirconium tubes containing  pallets of uranium. Those will stay in reactors for 3 years until reactivity declines to the extent that replacement is warranted. LWRs comprising 90 per cent today reactors were traditional shut down once per year (an outage) when one third of fuel would be replaced, but many reactors today have longer operating cycles with outages only every 18 or 24 months. After discharge from reactor used nuclear fuel cooled for several years in large ponds of water. There after they are essentially two options- either reprocessing used fuel to separate uranium and plutonium which may re introduced into nuclear fuel cycle or storing the used fuel for longer before sending it to deep geological repository .

The front end of the nuclear fuel cycle comprises the stages up to fuel fabrication where fuel assemblies are prepared . The “back end “ is the route followed by used fuel, which can include reprocessed uranium and plutonium -reentering the front end. The uranium production is starting point for  front end and it goes through stages of conversion and enrichment (at least LWRs-PHWRs run on natural uranium) before fuel fabrication.

Uranium is not scarce in any geological sense and over million tons have been mined since the drawn nuclear age in 1940s . Identified resources, exists many politically stable countries more than adequate fuel any  conceivable expansion of nuclear power for this century. The world uranium market has been characterized by periods of extreme boom to bust, caused initially by the demands of military program  and latterly by the one -off civil nuclear plans. The period from 1980 to 2003 San long depression in uranium prices at leveling insufficient to allow any but efficient producers to survive many years , 40 percent reactor requirements were fulfilled by secondary supplies rather than primary production sourced from either commercial inventories build up in boom periods or former military uranium reaching civil market . Since 2003 however uranium prices have risen sharply, encouraging an up surge in exploitation by up to 400 junior uranium companies, adding to the establishment market participants such as  Cameco, Rico T into , Areva, BHP Billiton and Kazatomfrom . Few of these will enter into production phase ,but some such as Palatial  uranium , one are already doing so and will participate in likely production boom over next few years .

Conversion is an immediate step in the nuclear fuel cycle, where uranium is converted from oxide to fluoride form for the enrichment stage ( which requires uranium to be gaseous form ). It is carried out in a few specialized plants thought the world. LWRs require U-235 isotope of uranium to be increased from natural 0.7 to 3.5 %. This is a major technical complex, step in cycle historically accounted  for slightly more fuel cost than uranium supply it self . Large gaseous diffusion enrichment plants owned by USEC in U.S. and AREVA in France are now gradually been replaced by new centrifuge enrichment facilities a technology mastered by Uren co in Europe and by Russian . This is much less  energy intensive than gas diffusion and capacity can be added on modular basis. Upwards of 10 billion dollars will be invested in a new centrifuge facilities over next 5-10 years.

Fuel fabrication is specialized service to reactor operators, rather than homogeneous commodity like uranium, conversion and enrichment. As such it takes place at greater number suppliers world wide in many cases national suppliers close to reactor location.

Let us hope nuclear industry will boom in next decade  since number of countries are coming forward investing in  nuclear power  to reduce green house gases.